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<body id="top" lang="en">
<a name="Definitions" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="Definitions-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h2 class="chapter">Definitions</h2>

<a name="index-definitions" class="anchor"></a>

<p>LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newcommand</code> &amp; <code>\renewcommand</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewcommand" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-commands_002c-redefining" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-defining-a-new-command" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-new-commands_002c-defining" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\<var>cmd</var>}{<var>defn</var>}
\newcommand{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\newcommand{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\newcommand*{\<var>cmd</var>}{<var>defn</var>}
\newcommand*{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\newcommand*{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or one of these.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\renewcommand{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\renewcommand{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\renewcommand{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\renewcommand*{\<var>cmd</var>}{<var>defn</var>}
\renewcommand*{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\renewcommand*{\<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define or redefine a command.  See also the discussion of
<code>\DeclareRobustCommand</code> in <a href="latex2e_3.html#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a>.
<a name="index-starred-form_002c-defining-new-commands" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_002a_002dform_002c-defining-new-commands" class="anchor"></a>
The starred form of these two requires that the arguments not contain
multiple paragraphs of text (in plain TeX terms that it not be
<code>\long</code>).
</p>
<p>These are the parameters:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><var>cmd</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>Required; the command name.  It must begin with a backslash, <code>\</code>,
and must not begin with the four letter string <code>\end</code>.  For
<code>\newcommand</code>, it must not be already defined.  For
<code>\renewcommand</code>, this name must already be defined.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>nargs</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments
that the command takes, including any optional argument.  Omitting this
argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that the command has no
arguments.  If you redefine a command, the new version can have a
different number of arguments than the old version.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>optargdefault</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
<code>\<var>cmd</var></code> is optional, with default value <var>optargdefault</var>
(which may be the empty string).  If this argument is not present then
<code>\<var>cmd</var></code> does not take an optional argument.
</p>
<a name="index-positional-parameter" class="anchor"></a>
<p>That is, if <code>\<var>cmd</var></code> is used with square brackets, as in
<code>\<var>cmd</var>[<var>optval</var>]{...}...</code>, then within <var>defn</var> the
parameter&nbsp;<code>#1</code> is set to the value of <var>optval</var>.  On the
other hand, if <code>\<var>cmd</var></code> is called without the square brackets
then within <var>defn</var> the parameter <code>#1</code> is set to the value of
<var>optargdefault</var>.  In either case, the required arguments start with
<code>#2</code>.
</p>
<p>Omitting <code>[<var>optargdefault</var>]</code> is different from having the
square brackets with no contents, as in <code>[]</code>.  The former sets
<code>#1</code> to the value of <var>optargdefault</var>; the latter sets <code>#1</code>
to the empty string.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>defn</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the text to be substituted for every occurrence of
<code>\<var>cmd</var></code>. The parameters <code>#1</code>, <code>#2</code>,
... <code>#<var>nargs</var></code> are replaced by the values that you supply when
you call the command (or by the default value if there is an optional
argument and you don&rsquo;t exercise the option).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>TeX ignores spaces in the source following an alphabetic control
sequence, as in &lsquo;<samp>\cmd </samp>&rsquo;.  If you actually want a space there, one
solution is to type <code>{}</code> after the command (&lsquo;<samp>\cmd{} </samp>&rsquo;, and
another solution is to use an explicit control space (&lsquo;<samp>\cmd\ </samp>&rsquo;).
</p>
<p>A simple example of defining a new command:
<code>\newcommand{\RS}{Robin Smith}</code> results in <code>\RS</code> being
replaced by the longer text.  Redefining an existing command is similar:
<code>\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}</code>.
</p>
<p>If you try to define a command and the name has already been used then
you get something like &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: Command \fred already
defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.  If you try
to redefine a command and the name has not yet been used then you get
something like &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: \hank undefined</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Here the first command definition has no arguments, and the second has
one required argument.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\student}{Ms~O'Leary}
\newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}
</pre></div>

<p>Use the first as in <code>I highly recommend \student{} to you</code>.  The
second has a variable, so that <code>\defref{def:basis}</code> expands to
<code>Definition~\ref{def:basis}</code>, which ultimately expands to
something like &lsquo;<samp>Definition~3.14</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Similarly, but with two required arguments:
<code>\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}</code> is invoked as
<code>\nbym{2}{k}</code>.
</p>
<p>This example has an optional argument.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}
</pre></div>

<p>Then <code>\salutation</code> gives &lsquo;<samp>Dear Sir or Madam:</samp>&rsquo; while
<code>\salutation[John]</code> gives &lsquo;<samp>Dear John:</samp>&rsquo;.  And
<code>\salutation[]</code> gives &lsquo;<samp>Dear :</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example has an optional argument and two required arguments.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\lawyers}[3][company]{#2, #3, and~#1}
I employ \lawyers[Howe]{Dewey}{Cheatem}.
</pre></div>

<p>The output is &lsquo;<samp>I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and Howe</samp>&rsquo;.  The optional
argument, the <code>Howe</code>, is associated with <code>#1</code>, while
<code>Dewey</code> and <code>Cheatem</code> are associated with <code>#2</code>
and&nbsp;<code>#3</code>.  Because of the optional argument,
<code>\lawyers{Dewey}{Cheatem}</code> will give the output &lsquo;<samp>I employ
Dewey, Cheatem, and company</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The braces around <var>defn</var> do not define a group, that is, they do not
delimit the scope of the result of expanding <var>defn</var>.  For example,
with <code>\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}</code>, in this sentence,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}.
</pre></div>

<p>the words &lsquo;<samp>met the</samp>&rsquo; would incorrectly be in italics.  The solution
is to put another pair of braces inside the definition:
<code>\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cprovidecommand" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cprovidecommand-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\providecommand</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cprovidecommand" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-defining-a-new-command-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-new-commands_002c-defining-1" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\providecommand{<var>cmd</var>}{<var>defn</var>}
\providecommand{<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\providecommand{<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\providecommand*{<var>cmd</var>}{<var>defn</var>}
\providecommand*{<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
\providecommand*{<var>cmd</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists.
If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect
as <code>\newcommand</code>.  If a command of this name already exists then
this definition does nothing.  This is particularly useful in a file
that may be loaded more than once, such as a style file.
See <a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a> for the description of the arguments.
</p>
<p>This example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College}
\providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College}
From \myaffiliation.
</pre></div>

<p>outputs &lsquo;<samp>From Saint Michael's College</samp>&rsquo;.  Unlike <code>\newcommand</code>,
the repeated use of <code>\providecommand</code> does not give an error.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code>\makeatother</code></h3>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\makeatletter
  ... definition of commands with @ in their name ..
\makeatother
</pre></div>

<p>Use this pair when you redefine LaTeX commands that are named with an
at-sign character&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp><code>@</code></samp>&rsquo;.  The <code>\makeatletter</code>
declaration makes the at-sign character have the category code of a
letter, code&nbsp;11.  The <code>\makeatother</code> declaration sets the
category code of the at-sign to code&nbsp;12, its default value.
</p>
<p>As TeX reads characters, it assigns each one a category code, or
<a name="index-catcode" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-character-category-code" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-category-code_002c-character" class="anchor"></a>
<em>catcode</em>. For instance, it assigns the backslash
character&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp><code>\</code></samp>&rsquo; the catcode&nbsp;0.  Command names
consist of a category&nbsp;0 character, ordinarily backslash, followed
by letters, category&nbsp;11 characters (except that a command name can
also consist of a category&nbsp;0 character followed by a single
non-letter symbol).
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s source code has the convention that some commands use
<code>@</code> in their name.  These commands are mainly intended for package
or class writers.  The convention prevents authors who are just using a
package or class from accidentally replacing such a command with one of
their own, because by default the at-sign has catcode&nbsp;12.
</p>
<p>The pair <code>\makeatletter</code> and <code>\makeatother</code> changes the
default code and then changes it back.  Use them inside a <samp>.tex</samp>
file, in the preamble, when you are defining or redefining commands
named with <code>@</code>, by having them surround your definition.  Don&rsquo;t
use these inside <samp>.sty</samp> or <samp>.cls</samp> files since the
<code>\usepackage</code> and <code>\documentclass</code> commands already arrange
that the at-sign has the character code of a letter, catcode&nbsp;11.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-macros2e" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-macros2e-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see
<a class="external" href="http://ctan.org/pkg/macros2e">http://ctan.org/pkg/macros2e</a>.
</p>
<p>In this example the class file has a command
<code>\thesis@universityname</code> that the user wants to change.  These
three lines should go in the preamble, before the
<code>\begin{document}</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael's College}
\makeatother
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005c_0040ifstar" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005c_0040ifstar-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\@ifstar</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005c_0040ifstar" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-commands_002c-star_002dvariants" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-star_002dvariants_002c-commands" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}}
\newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[<var>nostar-num-args</var>]{<var>nostar-body</var>} 
\newcommand{\mycmd@star}[<var>star-num-args</var>]{<var>star-body</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Many standard LaTeX environments or commands have a variant with the
same name but ending with a star character&nbsp;<code>*</code>, an asterisk.
Examples are the <code>table</code> and <code>table*</code> environments and the
<code>\section</code> and <code>\section*</code> commands.
</p>
<p>When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward
because <code>\newenvironment</code> and <code>\renewenvironment</code> allow the
environment name to contain a star.  For commands the situation is more
complex.  As in the synopsis above, there will be a user-called command,
given above as <code>\mycmd</code>, which peeks ahead to see if it is followed
by a star.  For instance, LaTeX does not really have a
<code>\section*</code> command; instead, the <code>\section</code> command peeks
ahead.  This command does not accept arguments but instead expands to
one of two commands that do accept arguments.  In the synopsis these two
are <code>\mycmd@nostar</code> and <code>\mycmd@star</code>.  They could take the
same number of arguments or a different number, or no arguments at all.
As always, in a LaTeX document a command using at-sign&nbsp;<code>@</code>
must be enclosed inside a <code>\makeatletter ... \makeatother</code> block
(see <a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a>).
</p>
<p>This example of <code>\@ifstar</code> defines the command <code>\ciel</code> and a
variant <code>\ciel*</code>.  Both have one required argument.  A call to
<code>\ciel{night}</code> will return &quot;starry night sky&quot; while
<code>\ciel*{blue}</code> will return &quot;starry not blue sky&quot;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{starry #1 sky}
\newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry not #1 sky}
\newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}}
</pre></div>

<p>In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of
arguments than the unstarred one.  With this definition, Agent 007&rsquo;s
<code>``My name is \agentsecret*{Bond},
\agentsecret{James}{Bond}.''</code> is equivalent to entering the commands
<code>``My name is \textsc{Bond}, \textit{James} textsc{Bond}.''</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}}
\newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}}
\newcommand*{\agentsecret}{%
  \@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}}
</pre></div>

<p>There are two sometimes more convenient ways to accomplish the work of
<code>\@ifstar</code>.  The <samp>suffix</samp> package allows the construct
<code>\newcommand\mycommand{<var>unstarred version</var>}</code> followed by
<code>\WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{<var>starred version</var>}</code>.  And
LaTeX3 has the <samp>xparse</samp> package that allows this code.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1
  {<var>starred version</var>}%
  {<var>unstarred version</var>}% 
  }
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewcounter" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewcounter_003a-Allocating-a-counter" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewcounter" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-counters_002c-defining-new" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcounter{<var>countername</var>}
\newcounter{<var>countername</var>}[<var>supercounter</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Globally defines a new counter named <var>countername</var> and initialize it
to zero (see <a href="latex2e_13.html#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>
<p>The name <var>countername</var> must consist of letters only. It does not
begin with a backslash.  This name must not already be in use by another
counter.
</p>
<p>When you use the optional argument <code>[<var>supercounter</var>]</code> then the
counter <var>countername</var> will be reset to zero whenever
<var>supercounter</var> is incremented.  For example, ordinarily
<code>subsection</code> is numbered within <code>section</code> so that any time you
increment <var>section</var>, either with <code>\stepcounter</code>
(see <a href="latex2e_13.html#g_t_005cstepcounter">\stepcounter</a>) or <code>\refstepcounter</code>
(see <a href="latex2e_13.html#g_t_005crefstepcounter">\refstepcounter</a>), then LaTeX will reset <var>subsection</var> to
zero.
</p>
<p>This example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcounter{asuper}  \setcounter{asuper}{1}
\newcounter{asub}[asuper] \setcounter{asub}{3}   % Note `asuper'
The value of asuper is \arabic{asuper} and of asub is \arabic{asub}.
\stepcounter{asuper}
Now asuper is \arabic{asuper} while asub is \arabic{asub}.
</pre></div>

<p>produces &lsquo;<samp>The value of asuper is 1 and that of asub is 3</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp>Now asuper is 2 while asub is 0</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If the counter already exists, for instance by entering <code>asuper</code>
twice, then you get something like &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: Command \c@asuper
already defined.  Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If you use the optional argument then the super counter must already
exist. Entering <code>\newcounter{jh}[lh]</code> when <code>lh</code> is not a
defined counter will get you &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: No counter 'lh'
defined.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewlength" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewlength-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newlength</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewlength" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-lengths_002c-allocating-new" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-rubber-lengths_002c-defining-new" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-skip-register_002c-plain-TeX" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-glue-register_002c-plain-TeX" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newlength{<var>arg</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Allocate a new length register (see <a href="latex2e_14.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  The required argument
<var>arg</var> must begin with a backslash, <code>\</code>.  The new register holds
rubber lengths such as <code>72.27pt</code> or <code>1in plus.2in minus.1in</code>
(a LaTeX length register is what plain TeX calls a <code>skip</code>
register).  The initial value is zero.  The control sequence
<code>\<var>arg</var></code> must not be already defined.
</p>
<p>An example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newlength{\graphichgt}
</pre></div>

<p>If you forget the backslash then you get &lsquo;<samp>Missing control sequence
inserted</samp>&rsquo;.  If the command sequence already exists then you get
something like &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: Command \graphichgt already defined.
Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewsavebox" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewsavebox-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newsavebox</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewsavebox" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-box_002c-allocating-new" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newsavebox{\<var>cmd</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define \<var>cmd</var>, the string consisting of a backslash followed by
<var>cmd</var>, to refer to a new bin for storing material.  These bins hold
material that has been typeset, to use multiple times or to measure or
manipulate (see <a href="latex2e_20.html#Boxes">Boxes</a>).  The bin name \<var>cmd</var> is required, must
start with a backslash, \, and must not already be a defined command.
This command is fragile (see <a href="#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>
<p>This allocates a bin and then puts typeset material into it.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newsavebox{\logobox}
\savebox{\logobox}{LoGo}
Our logo is \usebox{\logobox}. 
</pre></div>

<p>The output is &lsquo;<samp>Our logo is LoGo</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If there is an already defined bin then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: Command \logobox already defined. Or name
\end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The allocation of a box is global.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code>\renewenvironment</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewenvironment" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005crenewenvironment" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-environments_002c-defining" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-defining-new-environments" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-redefining-environments" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{<var>env</var>}{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\newenvironment{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\newenvironment{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\newenvironment*{<var>env</var>}{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\newenvironment*{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\newenvironment*{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or one of these.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\renewenvironment{<var>env</var>}{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment*{<var>env</var>}{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment*{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment*{<var>env</var>}[<var>nargs</var>][<var>optargdefault</var>]{<var>begdef</var>}{<var>enddef</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define or redefine the environment <var>env</var>, that is, create the
construct <code>\begin{<var>env</var>} ... <var>body</var> ... \end{<var>env</var>}</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-_002a_002dform-of-environment-commands" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not
contain multiple paragraphs of text.  However, the body of these
environments can contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><var>env</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the environment name.  It consists only of letters or the
<code>*</code> character, and thus does not begin with backslash, <code>\</code>.
It must not begin with the string <code>end</code>.  For
<code>\newenvironment</code>, the name <var>env</var> must not be the name of an
already existing environment, and also the command <code>\<var>env</var></code>
must be undefined.  For <code>\renewenvironment</code>, <var>env</var> must be the
name of an existing environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>nargs</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
that the environment takes.  When you use the environment these
arguments appear after the <code>\begin</code>, as in
<code>\begin{<var>env</var>}{<var>arg1</var>} ... {<var>argn</var>}</code>.  Omitting
this is equivalent to setting it to 0; the environment will have no
arguments.  When redefining an environment, the new version can have a
different number of arguments than the old version.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>optargdefault</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; if this is present then the first argument of the defined
environment is optional, with default value <var>optargdefault</var> (which
may be the empty string).  If this is not in the definition then the
environment does not take an optional argument.
</p>
<p>That is, when <var>optargdefault</var> is present in the definition of the
environment then you can start the environment with square brackets, as
in <code>\begin{<var>env</var>}[<var>optval</var>]{...} ... \end{<var>env</var>}</code>.
In this case, within <var>begdefn</var> the parameter <code>#1</code> is set to the
value of <var>optval</var>.  If you call <code>\begin{<var>env</var>}</code> without
square brackets, then within <var>begdefn</var> the parameter <code>#1</code> is
set to the value of the default <var>optargdefault</var>.  In either case,
any required arguments start with <code>#2</code>.
</p>
<p>Omitting <code>[<var>myval</var>]</code> in the call is different than having the
square brackets with no contents, as in <code>[]</code>.  The former results
in <code>#1</code> expanding to <var>optargdefault</var>; the latter results in
<code>#1</code> expanding to the empty string.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>begdef</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of
<code>\begin{<var>env</var>}</code>.  Within <var>begdef</var>, the parameters
<code>#1</code>, <code>#2</code>, ... <code>#<var>nargs</var></code>, are replaced by the
values that you supply when you call the environment; see the examples
below.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>enddef</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of
<code>\end{<var>env</var>}</code>.  This may not contain any parameters, that is,
you cannot use <code>#1</code>, <code>#2</code>, etc., here (but see the final
example below).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>All environments, that is to say the <var>begdef</var> code, the environment
body, and the <var>enddef</var> code, are processed within a group.  Thus, in
the first example below, the effect of the <code>\small</code> is limited to
the quote and does not extend to material following the environment.
</p>
<p>If you try to define an environment and the name has already been used
then you get something like &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: Command \fred already
defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.  If you try
to redefine an environment and the name has not yet been used then you
get something like &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Error: Environment hank undefined.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example gives an environment like LaTeX&rsquo;s <code>quotation</code>
except that it will be set in smaller type.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{smallquote}{%
  \small\begin{quotation}
}{%
  \end{quotation}
}
</pre></div>

<p>This has an argument, which is set in boldface at the start of a
paragraph.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{point}[1]{%
  \noindent\textbf{#1}
}{%
}
</pre></div>

<p>This one shows the use of a optional argument; it gives a quotation
environment that cites the author.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
  \begin{quotation}
  \noindent\textit{#1}: 
}{%
  \end{quotation}
}
</pre></div>

<p>The author&rsquo;s name is optional, and defaults to &lsquo;<samp>Shakespeare</samp>&rsquo;.  In
the document, use the environment like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
  ...
\end{citequote}
</pre></div>

<p>The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in 
<var>enddef</var>, in this case in a box (see <a href="latex2e_20.html#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">\sbox &amp; \savebox</a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
  \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
  \begin{quotation} 
}{%
  \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
  \end{quotation}
}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewtheorem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewtheorem-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newtheorem</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewtheorem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-theorems_002c-defining" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-defining-new-theorems" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-theorem_002dlike-environment" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-environment_002c-theorem_002dlike" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newtheorem{<var>name</var>}{<var>title</var>}
\newtheorem{<var>name</var>}{<var>title</var>}[<var>numbered_within</var>]
\newtheorem{<var>name</var>}[<var>numbered_like</var>]{<var>title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define a new theorem-like environment.  You can specify one of
<var>numbered_within</var> and <var>numbered_like</var>, or neither, but not both.
</p>
<p>The first form, <code>\newtheorem{<var>name</var>}{<var>title</var>}</code>, creates
an environment that will be labelled with <var>title</var>; see the first
example below.
</p>
<p>The second form,
<code>\newtheorem{<var>name</var>}{<var>title</var>}[<var>numbered_within</var>]</code>,
creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing
counter <var>numbered_within</var>, so this counter will be reset when
<var>numbered_within</var> is reset.  See the second example below.
</p>
<p>The third form
<code>\newtheorem{<var>name</var>}[<var>numbered_like</var>]{<var>title</var>}</code>,
with optional argument between the two required arguments, creates an
environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter
<var>numbered_like</var>.  See the third example.
</p>
<p>This command creates a counter named <var>name</var>.  In addition, unless
the optional argument <var>numbered_like</var> is used, inside of the
theorem-like environment the current <code>\ref</code> value will be that of
<code>\the<var>numbered_within</var></code> (see <a href="latex2e_7.html#g_t_005cref">\ref</a>).
</p>
<p>This declaration is global.  It is fragile (see <a href="#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>
<p>Arguments:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><var>name</var></dt>
<dd><p>The name of the environment.  It is a string of letters.  It must not
begin with a backslash, <code>\</code>.  It must not be the name of an
existing environment, and the command name <code>\<var>name</var></code> must not
already be defined.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>title</var></dt>
<dd><p>The text to be printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
number. For example, &lsquo;<samp>Theorem</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>numbered_within</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional
unit such as <code>chapter</code> or <code>section</code>.  When the
<var>numbered_within</var> counter is reset then the <var>name</var> environment&rsquo;s
counter will also be reset.
</p>
<p>If this optional argument is not used then the command
<code>\the<var>name</var></code> is set to <code>\arabic{<var>name</var>}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>numbered_like</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The
new environment will be numbered in sequence with <var>numbered_like</var>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered
sequentially.  The example below has a declaration in the preamble that
results in &lsquo;<samp>Definition&nbsp;1</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp>Definition&nbsp;2</samp>&rsquo; in the
output.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  First def 
\end{defn}

\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  Second def
\end{defn}
</pre></div>

<p>This example has the same document body as the prior one.  But here
<code>\newtheorem</code>&rsquo;s optional argument <var>numbered_within</var> is given as
<code>section</code>, so the output is like &lsquo;<samp>Definition&nbsp;1.1</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp>Definition&nbsp;2.1</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  First def 
\end{defn}

\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  Second def
\end{defn}
</pre></div>

<p>In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the
second of which calls for the new <code>thm</code> environment to use the same
counter as <code>defn</code>.  It gives &lsquo;<samp>Definition&nbsp;1.1</samp>&rsquo;, followed
by &lsquo;<samp>Theorem&nbsp;2.1</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp>Definition&nbsp;2.2</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
\newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  First def 
\end{defn}

\section{...}
\begin{thm}
  First thm
\end{thm}

\begin{defn}
  Second def
\end{defn}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnewfont" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnewfont-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\newfont</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cnewfont" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-fonts_002c-new-commands-for" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-defining-new-fonts" class="anchor"></a>

<p>This command is obsolete. This description is here only to help with old
documents.  New documents should define fonts in families through the
New Font Selection Scheme which allows you to, for example, associate a
boldface with a roman (see <a href="latex2e_4.html#Fonts">Fonts</a>).
</p>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newfont{\<var>cmd</var>}{<var>font description</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define a command <code>\<var>cmd</var></code> that will change the current font.
The control sequence must not already be defined. It must begin with a
backslash, <code>\</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-at-clause_002c-in-font-definitions" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-design-size_002c-in-font-definitions" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The <var>font description</var> consists of a <var>fontname</var> and an optional
<em>at clause</em>.  LaTeX will look on your system for a file named
<samp><var>fontname</var>.tfm</samp>.  The at clause can have the form either
<code>at <var>dimen</var></code> or <code>scaled <var>factor</var></code>, where a
<var>factor</var> of &lsquo;<samp>1000</samp>&rsquo; means no scaling.  For LaTeX&rsquo;s purposes,
all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions
relative to the font&rsquo;s design size, which is a value defined in the
<samp>.tfm</samp> file.
</p>
<p>This defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
\newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100}
\testfontat abc
\testfontscaled abc
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cprotect" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cprotect-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\protect</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cprotect" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-fragile-commands" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-robust-commands" class="anchor"></a>

<p>All LaTeX commands are either <em>fragile</em> or <em>robust</em>.  A
fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain
other commands.  Commands that contain data that LaTeX writes to an
auxiliary file and re-reads later are fragile.  This includes material
that goes into a table of contents, list of figures, list of tables,
etc.  Fragile commands also include line breaks, any command that has an
optional argument, and many more. To prevent such commands from
breaking, one solution is to preceded them with the command
<code>\protect</code>.
</p>
<p>For example, when LaTeX runs the <code>\section{<var>section
name</var>}</code> command it writes the <var>section name</var> text to the
<samp>.aux</samp> auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the
document such as in the table of contents.  Any argument that is
internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is
referred to as a 
<a name="index-moving-arguments" class="anchor"></a>
<em>moving argument</em>.  A command is fragile if it can
expand during this process into invalid TeX code.  Some examples of
moving arguments are those that appear in the <code>\caption{...}</code>
command (see <a href="latex2e_8.html#figure">figure</a>), in the <code>\thanks{...}</code> command
(see <a href="latex2e_18.html#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a>), and in @-expressions in the <code>tabular</code> and
<code>array</code> environments (see <a href="latex2e_8.html#tabular">tabular</a>).
</p>
<p>If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try
preceding it with <code>\protect</code>.  Every fragile commands must be
protected with their own <code>\protect</code>.  
</p>
<p>Although usually a <code>\protect</code> command doesn&rsquo;t hurt, length
commands are robust and should not be preceded by a <code>\protect</code>
command. Nor can a <code>\protect</code> command be used in the argument to
<code>\addtocounter</code> or <code>\setcounter</code> command.
</p>
<p>In this example the <code>\caption</code> command gives a mysterious error
about an extra curly brace.  Fix the problem by preceding each
<code>\raisebox</code> command with <code>\protect</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{figure}
  ...
  \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>In the next example the <code>\tableofcontents</code> command gives an error
because the <code>\(..\)</code> in the section title expands to illegal TeX
in the <samp>.toc</samp> file.  You can solve this by changing <code>\(..\)</code>
to <code>\protect\(..\protect\)</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{document}
\tableofcontents
...
\section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)}
...
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</code></h3>

<a name="index-_005cignorespaces" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cignorespacesafterend" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-spaces_002c-ignore-around-commands" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-commands_002c-ignore-spaces" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\ignorespaces
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\ignorespacesafterend
</pre></div>

<p>Both commands cause LaTeX to ignore spaces after the end of the
command up until the first non-space character.  The first is a command
from Plain TeX, and the second is LaTeX-specific.
</p>
<p>The <code>ignorespaces</code> is often used when defining commands via
<code>\newcommand</code>, or <code>\newenvironment</code>, or <code>\def</code>.  The
example below illustrates.  It allows a user to show the points values
for quiz questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as
shown in the <code>enumerate</code> list, users must not put any space between
the command and the question text.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}
\begin{enumerate} 
  \item\points{10}no extra space output here
  \item\points{15} extra space between the number and the `extra'
\end{enumerate} 
</pre></div>

<p>The solution is to change to this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand{\points}[1]{%
  \makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces}
</pre></div>

<p>A second example shows spaces being removed from the front of text.  The
commands below allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names.  But,
as given, if a title accidentally starts with a space then
<code>\fullname</code> will reproduce that.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\makeatletter
\newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\@honorific{#1}} % remember title
\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\@honorific~#1}       % put title before name
\makeatother
\begin{tabular}{|l|}
\honorific{Mr/Ms}  \fullname{Jones} \\  % no extra space here
\honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones}     % extra space before title
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>To fix this, change to
<code>\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\@honorific~#1}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code>\ignorespaces</code> is also often used in a <code>\newenvironment</code>
at the end of the <var>begin</var> clause, that is, as part of the second
argument, as in <code>\begin{newenvironment}{<var>env
name</var>}{... \ignorespaces}{...}</code>.
</p>
<p>To strip spaces off the end of an environment use
<code>\ignorespacesafterend</code>.  An example is that this will show a much
larger vertical space between the first and second environments than
between the second and third.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}}
\begin{eq}
e=mc^2
\end{eq}
\begin{equation}
F=ma
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
E=IR
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Putting a comment character&nbsp;<code>%</code> immediately after the
<code>\end{eq}</code> will make the vertical space disappear, but that is
inconvenient.  The solution is to change to
<code>\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}</code>.
</p>




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